Is a Pound of Human More Nutritious Than a Pound of Beef

Protein is an essential macronutrient, simply not all nutrient sources of protein are created equal, and you may not need equally much every bit yous remember. Learn the basics about protein and shaping your diet with healthy poly peptide foods.

Jump to:
–What is protein?
–How much protein exercise I need?
–It'southward all about the protein "package"
–Research on protein and human health
–Poly peptide foods and the planet
–The lesser line: choosing healthy protein foods
–[Quiz] Test your protein knowledge!

What Is Protein?

Protein is found throughout the body—in musculus, bone, skin, pilus, and virtually every other body part or tissue. It makes up the enzymes that power many chemic reactions and the hemoglobin that carries oxygen in your blood. At least 10,000 different proteins brand you what you lot are and keep you that style.

Protein is made from twenty-plus basic building blocks called amino acids. Considering we don't store amino acids, our bodies make them in 2 dissimilar ways: either from scratch, or by modifying others. 9 amino acids—histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine—known as the essential amino acids, must come from nutrient.

How Much Poly peptide Practice I Need?

The National Academy of Medicine recommends that adults become a minimum of 0.eight grams of protein for every kilogram of body weight per twenty-four hour period, or simply over 7 grams for every 20 pounds of body weight. [1]

• For a 140-pound person, that means about 50 grams of poly peptide each day.
• For a 200-pound person, that ways about 70 grams of poly peptide each day.

The National Academy of Medicine also sets a broad range for acceptable protein intake—anywhere from x% to 35% of calories each twenty-four hours. Beyond that, there's relatively fiddling solid information on the platonic corporeality of protein in the diet or the healthiest target for calories contributed past poly peptide. In an analysis conducted at Harvard amidst more than 130,000 men and women who were followed for upwards to 32 years, the percentage of calories from total poly peptide intake was not related to overall mortality or to specific causes of decease. [2] However, the source of protein was important.

What are "complete" proteins, and how much do I demand?

"Pure" protein, whether derived from plant or animal foods, probably has similar effects on health, although the mix of amino acids tin have health implications. Some proteins establish in food are "complete," meaning they comprise all xx-plus types of amino acids needed to make new protein in the trunk. Others are incomplete, lacking one or more of the nine essential amino acids, which our bodies tin can't make from scratch or from other amino acids. Animal-based foods (meat, poultry, fish, eggs, and dairy foods) tend to be good sources of complete protein, while plant-based foods (fruits, vegetables, grains, basics, and seeds) often lack one or more than essential amino acid. Those who abjure from eating beast-based foods can eat a variety of protein-containing found foods each day in society to go all the amino acids needed to brand new poly peptide, and also choose to comprise complete found proteins similar quinoa and chia seeds.

Information technology's important to note that millions of people worldwide, especially immature children, don't get plenty protein due to nutrient insecurity. The effects of protein deficiency and malnutrition range in severity from growth failure and loss of muscle mass to decreased immunity, weakening of the center and respiratory system, and expiry.

However, it'due south uncommon for healthy adults in the U.S. and near other developed countries to have a deficiency, because there's an abundance of plant and animal-based foods full of protein. In fact, many in the U.South. are consuming more than enough protein, especially from creature-based foods. [3]

It's All Nigh the Poly peptide "Packet"

When we eat foods for protein, we as well swallow everything that comes aslope it: the different fats, fiber, sodium, and more. It's this protein "parcel" that's likely to make a difference for health.

The table beneath shows a sample of food "packages" sorted by protein content, alongside a range of components that come with information technology.

Table: Comparison protein packages

To call out a few examples:

• A iv-ounce broiled sirloin steak is a great source of poly peptide—virtually 33 grams worth. But it too delivers about 5 grams of saturated fat.
• A iv-ounce ham steak with 22 grams of protein has only 1.vi grams of saturated fatty, but it's loaded with 1,500 milligrams worth of sodium.
• 4 ounces of grilled sockeye salmon has about 30 grams of poly peptide, naturally low in sodium, and contains but over 1 gram of saturated fat. Salmon and other fatty fish are also excellent sources of omega-3 fats, a type of fat that'southward especially adept for the heart.
• A cup of cooked lentils provides about eighteen grams of poly peptide and 15 grams of fiber, and information technology has virtually no saturated fatty or sodium.

What about poly peptide powders?

Powdered protein can come from a variety of sources, including eggs, milk (due east.g., casein, whey), and plants (eastward.g., soybeans, peas, hemp). Some protein powders contain protein from multiple sources; for instance, a vegan choice might include poly peptide derived from peas, pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds, and alfalfa. Like other dietary supplements, poly peptide powders are not regulated by the U.Due south. Nutrient and Drug Administration for condom. They can often comprise not-poly peptide ingredients, including vitamins and minerals, thickeners, added sugars, not-caloric sweeteners, and artificial flavoring. If you choose to consume poly peptide pulverization, it is of import to read the diet and ingredient labels beforehand, as products may contain unexpected ingredients and large amounts of added sugars and calories.

Learn more than near protein powders and other conditioning supplements

Enquiry on Poly peptide and Health

Bachelor testify indicates that it's the source of poly peptide (or, the protein "package"), rather than the amount of protein, that probable makes a divergence for our health. You lot tin explore the enquiry related to each disease in the tabs below, but here's the evidence-based takeaway: eating salubrious protein sources like beans, nuts, fish, or poultry in identify of carmine meat and processed meat can lower the risk of several diseases and premature death.

Heart disease

Research conducted at the Harvard Chan School of Public Wellness has found that eating even small amounts of cerise meat—particularly candy cherry meat—on a regular basis is linked to an increased take a chance of centre disease and stroke, and the risk of dying from cardiovascular illness or any other cause. [4-vi] Conversely, replacing red and candy reddish meat with healthy poly peptide sources such as beans, soy foods, nuts, fish, or poultry seems to reduce these risks. One of the reasons why plant sources of poly peptide are related to lower gamble of cardiovascular illness compared to protein from red meat and dairy is because of the different types of fat in these protein packages. Constitute-based protein sources are more unsaturated, which lowers LDL cholesterol—an established chance factor for middle disease. Also, plant sources incorporate no cholesterol. Other factors are probable to contribute to the lower risk, only this is a key factor.

• One investigation followed 120,000 men and women in the Nurses' Health Written report and Health Professionals Follow-Up Report for more than than 2 decades. For every additional iii-ounce serving of unprocessed crimson meat the written report participants consumed each solar day, their risk of dying from cardiovascular disease increased by thirteen%. [5]
  • Candy red meat was even more than strongly linked to dying from cardiovascular disease—and in smaller amounts: every additional 1.5 ounce serving of candy reddish meat consumed each solar day (equivalent to i hot domestic dog or two strips of bacon) was linked to a 20% increment in the risk of cardiovascular disease death.
  • Cutting back on ruby meat could save lives: the researchers estimated that if all the men and women in the report had reduced their total carmine and processed red meat intake to less than half a serving a solar day, one in ten cardiovascular affliction deaths would accept been prevented.
• In another study of 43,000 men that looked at both corporeality and sources of protein found that intake of total poly peptide was minimally associated with middle affliction take chances, but intake of protein from red meat was associated with higher gamble. [7]

• Another report—the first meta-assay of randomized controlled trials looking at the health effects of red meat past substituting it for other specific types of foods—found that diets that replaced cherry meat with salubrious establish proteins led to decreases in risk factors for cardiovascular affliction. [28]
  • The study included data from 36 randomized controlled trials involving ane,803 participants. The researchers compared people who ate diets with ruddy meat with people who ate more of other types of foods (i.e. chicken, fish, carbohydrates, or plant proteins such as legumes, soy, or nuts), looking at blood concentrations of cholesterol, triglycerides, lipoproteins, and blood pressure—all take a chance factors for cardiovascular disease.
  • Researchers constitute that when diets with reddish meat were compared with all other types of diets combined, at that place were no meaning differences in full cholesterol, lipoproteins, or claret pressure, although diets higher in cerise meat did lead to college triglyceride concentrations than the comparing diets.
  • However, researchers found that diets higher in loftier-quality institute protein sources such as legumes, soy, and nuts resulted in lower levels of both full and LDL ("bad") cholesterol compared to diets with ruddy meat.

  In terms of theamount of protein consumed, there'southward show that eating a relatively loftier-protein diet may be beneficial for the heart, as long equally the protein comes from a healthy source.

  • A 20-twelvemonth prospective study of over 80,000 women plant that those who ate depression-carbohydrate diets that were high in plant-based sources of fat and protein had a 30%lower run a risk of heart disease compared with women who ate high-carbohydrate, depression-fatty diets. [8] Yet, eating a low-saccharide diet high in brute fatty or protein did not offer such protection.
  • Farther evidence of the heart benefits of eating good for you poly peptide in place of carbohydrate comes from a randomized trial known as the Optimal Macronutrient Intake Trial for Heart Wellness (OmniHeart). A healthy diet that replaced some sugar with good for you poly peptide (or healthy fat) did a better chore of lowering blood pressure and harmful depression-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol than a higher carbohydrate nutrition. [ix]
  • Similarly, the "EcoAtkins" weight loss trial compared a depression-fat, high -carbohydrate, vegetarian diet to a depression-carbohydrate vegan nutrition that was high in vegetable protein and fat. Though weight loss was like on the two diets, study participants on the high protein nutrition saw improvements in claret lipids and blood force per unit area. [ten]
  • Of grade, occasionally a study will generate headlines because it found the opposite result. For instance, one written report of Swedish women who ate low-sugar, high-protein diets had higher rates of cardiovascular affliction and death than those who ate lower-protein, college-carbohydrate diets. [eleven] Simply the study, which assessed the women's diets only once and then followed them for 15 years, did not look at what types of carbohydrates or what sources of protein these women ate. That was of import because most of the women'south protein came from animal sources.

Diabetes

Over again, the source of protein matters more than protein quantity when it comes to diabetes take chances. Eating more reddish meat predicts a higher risk of type 2 diabetes, while consuming nuts, legumes, and poultry is related to lower risk.

• A 2011 study found that people who ate diets high in red meat, especially candy cherry meat, had a higher hazard of type two diabetes than those who rarely ate red or candy meat. [12] For each additional serving a day of red meat or candy red meat that study participants ate, their risk of diabetes rose 12% and 32%, respectively. Investigators as well found that replacing a serving of ruby meat with one serving of nuts, depression-fatty dairy products, or whole grains each day was associated with an estimated 16% to 35% lower risk of type 2 diabetes.
• A related written report also found that people who started eating more crimson meat than usual were had a 50% college take a chance of developing type 2 diabetes during the adjacent iv years, and researchers as well establish that those who reduced carmine meat consumption had a 14% lower risk of blazon ii diabetes over a 10-yr follow-up flow. [13]
• How meat is cooked may likewise affect blazon 2 diabetes risk. In a study that tracked the health of over 289,000 men and women, researchers found that individuals who most frequently ate red meats and chicken cooked at loftier temperatures were one.5 times more probable to develop blazon 2 diabetes, compared to those who ate the least. There was also an increased risk of weight gain and developing obesity in the frequent users of high-temperature cooking methods, which may have contributed to the development of diabetes. Of note, this inquiry demonstrated that cooking methods might contribute to diabetes risk beyond the effects of meat consumption alone. [14] Learn more near this study.
• More evidence that the source of protein matters comes from a 20-twelvemonth study that looked at the human relationship between low-saccharide diets and type two diabetes in women. Depression-carbohydrate diets that were loftier in vegetable sources of fat and protein were associated with a lower gamble of type two diabetes. [xv] But low-carbohydrate diets that were high in animal sources of poly peptide or fat did not show this benefit.
• For type 1 diabetes (formerly called juvenile or insulin-dependent diabetes), proteins found in cow'southward milk have been implicated in the evolution of the disease in babies with a predisposition to the disease, but research remains inconclusive. [16,17]

Cancer

When it comes to cancer, over again, the source of protein seems to matter more than quantity.

• In the Nurse's Health Study and the Health Professionals Follow-Up Study, every additional serving per 24-hour interval of scarlet meat or processed red meat was associated with a ten% and 16% higher risk of cancer death, respectively. [5]
• In Oct 2015, the World Wellness Organization (WHO)'south International Bureau for Inquiry on Cancer (IARC) concluded that consumption of processed meat is "carcinogenic to humans," and that consumption of red meat is "probably carcinogenic to humans." [eighteen] The IARC Working Group (comprised of 22 scientists from ten countries) reached these conclusions from an evaluation of over 800 studies.
  • Conclusions were primarily based on the testify for colorectal cancer. Data likewise showed positive associations between candy meat consumption and stomach cancer, and between red meat consumption and pancreatic and prostate cancer.
• A 2014 study as well found a link betwixt loftier consumption of crimson meat during adolescence and premenopausal breast cancer, while college intakes of poultry, nuts, and legumes were associated with lower take chances. Using information on the health of 89,000 women (aged 24 to 43) followed over a 20-year catamenia, researchers found a 22% higher take chances of breast cancer in those who ate 1.5 servings of blood-red meat per 24-hour interval while in high school, compared to those who only had ane serving per calendar week. Each additional daily serving of ruby-red meat seemed to increase the risk of breast cancer by some other xiii%.  [xix]
• How meat is cooked may also accept implications for cancer risk. Loftier-temperature grilling creates potentially cancer-causing compounds in meat, including polycyclic effluvious hydrocarbons and heterocyclic amines. Learn about tips for healthy grilling.

Premature expiry

• In 2016, researchers reviewed poly peptide intakes of more 131,000 women and men from the Nurses' Health Study and Health Professionals Follow-upwards Study. After tracking their diets for up to 32 years, the authors constitute that a higher intake of blood-red meat, particularly candy versions (sausage, bacon, hot dogs, salami), was linked to a modestly college chance of expiry, while a higher protein intake from plant foods carried a lower risk. [2] Learn more most this study.

Os wellness

• Digesting protein releases acids into the bloodstream, which the trunk usually neutralizes with calcium and other buffering agents. Every bit a result, early research theorized that eating lots of protein requires a lot more calcium – which may be pulled from os. A 2009 systematic review establish that this doesn't appear to happen. [20]

Weight control

The same good for you protein foods that are proficient choices for affliction prevention may too assistance with weight control. Again, it'south the source of poly peptide that matters.

• Researchers at the Harvard Chan Schoolhouse of Public Health followed the diet and lifestyle habits of over 120,000 men and women for upwards to 20 years, looking at how small changes contributed to weight gain over time. [21]
  • Those who ate more than ruddy and processed meat over the course of the study gained more weight, about i extra pound every iv years, while those who ate more nuts over the course of the study gained less weight, about a half pound less every four years.
• A subsequent detailed analysis of this cohort also found that eating red meat, chicken with skin, and regular cheese was associated with greater weight proceeds. Yogurt, peanut butter, walnuts and other nuts, chicken without peel, depression-fat cheese, and seafood was associated with less weight gain. [22]
• Another report showed that eating effectually one daily serving of beans, chickpeas, lentils or peas can increase fullness, which may lead to better weight management and weight loss. [23]

There'due south no need to go overboard on poly peptide. Though some studies evidence benefits of high-protein, low-carbohydrate diets in the brusk term (such as the paleo diet), avoiding fruits and whole grains means missing out on healthful fiber, vitamins, minerals, and other phytonutrients.

Other considerations involving protein

• Specific proteins in food and the environment are involved in food allergies, which are overreactions of the immune system (have gluten and celiac affliction, for example).
• Medical journals are as well full of reports linking allergic responses to specific protein sources with a variety of weather condition (animate issues, chronic digestive issues, etc.). Eggs, fish, milk, peanuts, tree basics, and soybeans cause allergic reactions in some people.
• Individuals diagnosed with certain diseases (such as kidney and liver disease) need to monitor their protein intake according to their physician's guidelines.
• You may have also heard that the use of antibiotics in the production of animal-based foods has contributed to the emergence of "superbugs," or strains of bacteria resistant to currently available antibiotics. In 2016, the FDA appear a voluntary program to limit the routine use of antibiotics in food product (such as giving antibiotics to healthy animals to help them grow faster). [24] Every bit a consumer, you may want to detect products "raised without antibiotics" if you plan on eating meat. Some companies feature this language on the packaging, others don't.

Poly peptide Foods and the Planet

Merely as different foods can take differing impacts on human health, they likewise take differing impacts on the environment. Agriculture is a major contributor of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions globally, the accumulation of which is driving climatic change at a charge per unit unprecedented in human history. Even so, non all foods have an equal impact. Product of animate being-based foods tends to have higher GHG emissions than producing plant-based foods—and dairy and especially red meat (specially beef, lamb, and goat) stand out for their disproportionate bear upon.

Source: Earth Resources Plant, www.wri.org/proteinscorecard

To give you an thought, this "scorecard" from the World Resource Institute illustrates the differing GHG emissions per gram of protein from both beast and found-based protein foods. [25] Making simply one pound (454 grams) of lamb generates five times more GHGs than making a pound of craven and around 30 times more than than making a pound of lentils. [26] In the U.S. alone, beefiness accounts for 36% of all food-related GHG emissions. [27] Across emissions, it'south also important to note that nutrient product places an enormous demand upon our natural resources, equally agriculture is a major correspondent to deforestation, species extinction, and freshwater depletion and contagion.

Acquire more almost the impacts of dissimilar foods on your plate.

Lesser Line

Protein is a key office of whatever diet. The boilerplate person needs almost 7 grams of protein every day for every 20 pounds of trunk weight. Because protein is plant in an abundance of foods, many people can easily run across this goal. Still, not all protein "packages" are created equal. Because foods incorporate a lot more than than poly peptide, it'due south important to pay attention to what else is coming with information technology. That's why the Healthy Eating Plate encourages choosing healthy poly peptide foods.

Building off this general guidance, here are some additional details and tips for shaping your diet with the best protein choices:

• Get your poly peptide from plants when possible . Eating legumes (beans and peas), nuts, seeds, whole grains, and other plant-based sources of protein is a win for your health and the health of the planet. If nearly of your protein comes from plants, brand certain that y'all mix up your sources so no "essential" components of protein are missing. The good news is that the found kingdom offers enough of options to mix and match. Here are some examples for each category:
  • Legumes: lentils, beans (adzuki, black, fava, chickpeas/garbanzo, kidney,  lima, mung, pinto etc.), peas (green, snow, snap, split, etc.), edamame/soybeans (and products made from soy: tofu, tempeh, etc.), peanuts.
  • Nuts and Seeds: almonds, pistachios, cashews, walnuts, hazelnuts, pecans, hemp seeds, squash and pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds, flax seeds, sesame seeds, chia seeds.
  • Whole Grains: kamut, teff, wheat, quinoa, rice, wild rice, millet, oats, buckwheat,
  • Other: while many vegetables and fruits contain some level of poly peptide, it'southward generally in smaller amounts than the other plant-based foods. Some examples with higher protein quantities include corn, broccoli, asparagus, brussels sprouts, and artichokes.

• Upgrade your sources of fauna poly peptide . Considering the poly peptide packet is particularly important when it comes to brute-based foods:
  • Mostly, poultry (craven, turkey, duck) and a diverseness of seafood (fish, crustaceans, mollusks) are your all-time bet. Eggs tin be a good option, besides.
  • If you enjoy dairy foods, it'due south best to exercise so in moderation (think closer to 1-two servings a day; and incorporating yogurt is probably a better choice than getting all your servings from milk or cheese).
  • Red meat—which includes unprocessed beef, pork, lamb, veal, mutton, and goat meat—should be consumed on a more limited basis. If yous relish red meat, consider eating it in small-scale amounts or but on special occasions.
  • Processed meats, such as bacon, hot dogs, sausages, and common cold cuts should be avoided. Although these products are often fabricated from red meats, candy meats also include items like turkey bacon, chicken sausage, and deli-sliced craven and ham. (Processed meat refers to any meat that has been "transformed through salting, curing, fermentation, smoking, or other processes to heighten flavor or better preservation." [eighteen])

Looking to reduce ruby and processed meats, just unsure where to showtime? Here are a few approaches to cut-back while keeping your meals satiating and flavorful. Simply find your "starting betoken" and motion forward with the strategies that work for you:

Swallow less meat, enjoy more variety

This arroyo boosts healthy plant-based foods like beans, nuts, whole grains, and other veggies, while still providing ways to incorporate some of your favorite animal-based foods.

Examination your protein knowledge!

Fix to come across how much you know about protein and healthy protein foods? Endeavour this 10 question quiz to find out:

References

1. National Academies of Medicine.Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Cobweb, Fat, Fat Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients).
2. Vocal Grand, Fung TT, Hu FB, Willett WC, Longo VD, Chan AT, Giovannucci EL. Association of animate being and plant protein intake with all-crusade and cause-specific mortality. JAMA internal medicine. 2016 Oct 1;176(10):1453-63.
3. Fehrenbach KS, Righter Air-conditioning, Santo RE. A critical examination of the available information sources for estimating meat and protein consumption in the USA. Public health nutrition. 2016 Jun;19(8):1358-67.
4. Bernstein AM, Sun Q, Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, Willett WC. Major dietary poly peptide sources and risk of coronary heart disease in women. Apportionment. 2010 Aug 31;122(9):876-83.
5. Pan A, Sun Q, Bernstein AM, Schulze MB, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, Hu FB. Red meat consumption and mortality: results from ii prospective accomplice studies. Archives of internal medicine. 2012 Apr 9;172(7):555-63.
6. Bernstein AM, Pan A, Rexrode KM, Stampfer K, Hu FB, Mozaffarian D, Willett WC. Dietary protein sources and the risk of stroke in men and women. Stroke. 2011 January one:STROKEAHA-111.
7. Preis SR, Stampfer MJ, Spiegelman D, Willett WC, Rimm EB. Dietary poly peptide and adventure of ischemic heart illness in middle-aged men–. The American journal of clinical diet. 2010 Sep 29;92(5):1265-72.
8. Halton TL, Willett WC, Liu South, Manson JE, Albert CM, Rexrode Thousand, Hu FB. Depression-carbohydrate-nutrition score and the risk of coronary eye disease in women. New England Journal of Medicine. 2006 Nov 9;355(19):1991-2002.
9. Appel LJ, Sacks FM, Carey VJ, Obarzanek Eastward, Swain JF, Miller ER, Conlin PR, Erlinger TP, Rosner BA, Laranjo NM, Charleston J. Effects of protein, monounsaturated fatty, and carbohydrate intake on blood pressure and serum lipids: results of the OmniHeart randomized trial. JAMA. 2005 Nov 16;294(xix):2455-64.
10. Jenkins DJ, Wong JM, Kendall CW, Esfahani A, Ng VW, Leong TC, Faulkner DA, Vidgen Eastward, Greaves KA, Paul G, Singer W. The upshot of a constitute-based depression-carbohydrate ("Eco-Atkins") diet on trunk weight and claret lipid concentrations in hyperlipidemic subjects. Archives of internal medicine. 2009 Jun 8;169(11):1046-54.
11. Lagiou P, Sandin S, Lof M, Trichopoulos D, Adami HO, Weiderpass East. Low carbohydrate-loftier protein diet and incidence of cardiovascular diseases in Swedish women: prospective accomplice written report. BMJ. 2012 Jun 26;344:e4026.
12. Pan A, Lord's day Q, Bernstein AM, Schulze MB, Manson JE, Willett WC, Hu FB. Red meat consumption and take chances of blazon 2 diabetes: iii cohorts of Us adults and an updated meta-assay–. The American journal of clinical diet. 2011 Aug 10;94(4):1088-96.
13. Pan A, Sun Q, Bernstein AM, Manson JE, Willett WC, Hu FB. Changes in red meat consumption and subsequent run a risk of type two diabetes mellitus: three cohorts of US men and women. JAMA internal medicine. 2013 Jul 22;173(14):1328-35.
14. Pan A, Lord's day Q, Bernstein AM, Manson JE, Willett WC, Hu FB. Changes in carmine meat consumption and subsequent gamble of type ii diabetes mellitus: three cohorts of United states men and women.JAMA internal medicine. 2013 Jul 22;173(14):1328-35.
15. Halton TL, Liu S, Manson JE, Hu FB. Low-carbohydrate-nutrition score and chance of type ii diabetes in women–. The American journal of clinical diet. 2008 February 1;87(2):339-46.
16. Åkerblom HK, Vaarala O, Hyöty H, Ilonen J, Knip M. Ecology factors in the etiology of type 1 diabetes. American periodical of medical genetics. 2002 May 30;115(i):18-29.
17. Vaarala O, Ilonen J, Ruohtula T, Pesola J, Virtanen SM, Härkönen T, Koski M, Kallioinen H, Tossavainen O, Poussa T, Järvenpää AL. Removal of bovine insulin from cow's milk formula and early initiation of beta-cell autoimmunity in the FINDIA pilot study. Archives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine. 2012 Jul 1;166(7):608-14.
18. Bouvard 5, Loomis D, Guyton KZ, Grosse Y, El Ghissassi F, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, Guha Northward, Mattock H, Straif K. Carcinogenicity of consumption of red and processed meat. The Lancet Oncology. 2015 Dec one;16(xvi):1599-600.
19. Farvid MS, Cho E, Chen WY, Eliassen AH, Willett WC. Adolescent meat intake and breast cancer take a chance. International journal of cancer. 2015 Apr 15;136(viii):1909-twenty.
20. Darling AL, Millward DJ, Torgerson DJ, Hewitt CE, Lanham-New SA. Dietary protein and bone wellness: a systematic review and meta-analysis–. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2009 Nov 4;xc(6):1674-92.
21. Mozaffarian D, Hao T, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Hu FB. Changes in nutrition and lifestyle and long-term weight gain in women and men. New England Journal of Medicine. 2011 Jun 23;364(25):2392-404.
22. Smith JD, Hou T, Ludwig DS, Rimm EB, Willett W, Hu FB, Mozaffarian D. Changes in intake of protein foods, saccharide amount and quality, and long-term weight change: results from iii prospective cohorts–. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2015 April 8;101(vi):1216-24.
23. Li SS, Kendall CW, de Souza RJ, Jayalath VH, Cozma AI, Ha V, Mirrahimi A, Chiavaroli 50, Augustin LS, Blanco Mejia S, Leiter LA. Dietary pulses, satiety and food intake: A systematic review and meta‐analysis of acute feeding trials. Obesity. 2014 Aug;22(8):1773-fourscore.
24. Food and Drug Administration. FDA'south Strategy on Antimicrobial Resistance – Questions and Answers. https://www.fda.gov/animalveterinary/guidancecomplianceenforcement/guidanceforindustry/ucm216939.htm. Accessed on 11/vi/2018.
25. World Resources Institute.Protein Scorecard. https://www.wri.org/resources/data-visualizations/protein-scorecard. Accessed on xi/6/2018.
26. Culinary Found of America and Harvard T.H. Chan Schoolhouse of Public Health.Menus of Change: 2016 Almanac Study.http://www.menusofchange.org/
27. Heller MC, Keoleian GA. Greenhouse gas emission estimates of United states of america dietary choices and food loss. Journal of Industrial Ecology. 2015 Jun;19(3):391-401.
28. Guasch-Ferré Thou, Satija A, Blondin S, Janiszewski Chiliad, Emlen East, O'Connor L, Campbell W, Hu F, Willett W, Stampfer Grand. Meta-Assay of Randomized Controlled Trials of Cherry-red Meat Consumption in Comparison With Various Comparison Diets on Cardiovascular Adventure Factors. Apportionment. 2019 Apr 1;139(15):1828-45.
    *Disclosures: Dr. Hu has received research support from the California Walnut Commission. Dr. Campbell reported receiving enquiry support from the National Institutes of Health (T32 Fellowship for Lauren O'Connor), the American Egg Board – The Egg Nutrition Center, The Beef Checkoff Program, The National Dairy Council, The Pork Checkoff Program, and the Barilla Grouping. Dr. Campbell besides reported serving on the 2015 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee. Dr. Satija is an employee of Analysis Group, Inc. The other authors declare no conflicts.

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Source: https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/protein/

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